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Grammar
& Punctuation
Nouns
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Pronouns |
Verbs | Adjectives |
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Nouns
Nouns
are words that name a person, place, thing, or concept.
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Examples: teacher, valley, furniture, Hinduism |
Questions to ask: Is it a proper noun, requiring a capital letter? Does it have a plural form? If so, are you using the singular or plural form?
Nouns are the weight of a sentence. They are "heavy" and carry the authority of the sentence. They are the psychological subjects, to the reader (Williams, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace).
Underline all the nouns in the subject position of each sentence in a paragraph. Be sure you have a consistent string of topics.
Pronouns
Pronouns
are substitutes for a noun a noun phrase, or another pronoun.
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Examples: she, his, those, whom, whoever, anyone |
Questions to ask: What word or words in the sentence does the pronoun refer to? Does the pronoun refer to a noun or pronoun that is singular or plural?
Pronouns that lack a clear antecedent can be confusing for the reader. Check that the antecedent-the noun to which the pronoun refers-is clear.
Verbs
Verbs
tell what a person, place, thing, or concept does or is, and change form
to refer to present, past, or future time. Every independent
clause needs a verb.
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Examples: smile, throw, think, seem, become, be |
Questions to ask: What time does the verb refer to? What auxiliary or model verbs are needed? Is the subject of the verb singular or plural? Is the verb in the active or passive voice? What are the five forms of the verb (sing, sings, singing, sang, sung), and are you using the correct form?
Verbs give your sentences
momentum and movement. They make your reader feel that he/she is going
somewhere in your argument. Don't ask a small verb like "is"
to carry too many "heavy" nouns (Williams, Style).
Example
Like all happy couples,
nouns and verbs like to be close to one another in sentences. They orient
the reader to your sentences. Underline noun and verb to see if they can
be closer together. If they are interrupted by a modifying
clause, revise.
Example
Adjectives
Adjectives
are words that describe nouns. An adjective can precede a noun (purple
boots) or follow a linking verb: Her boots are purple. Also functioning
as adjectives (before a noun) are a, an and the, as well as many pronouns:
a cabbage, an allegory, their shoes.
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Examples: purple, beautiful, big |
Adjectives enrich your sentences and help your reader imagine what is being said and develop a feeling about it. However, choose one precise adjective instead of many adjectives that are really synonyms.
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Example: "tumultuous and agitated times" is less effective than "tumultuous times," because the former is redundant. |
Adverbs
Adverbs
are words that provide information about verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or
clauses. Many but not all adverbs end in -ly. Adverbs provide information
about "how" or "when": very, well, sometimes, often,
soon. Conjunctive adverbs-however, therefore, furthermore-make connections
between independent clauses.
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Examples: efficiently, undoubtedly. |
Placement of modifying
words, like adjectives and adverbs, is crucial to their effectiveness
and clarify.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions
are words that connect single words, phrases, and clauses are called conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions-and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet-connect ideas
of equal importance. Subordinating conjunctions-because, if, when although-for
instance-make one clause dependant on another. Consider the meaning before
using a conjunction.
Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are always preferable to "and," "also," "in addition." Why? Because they draw logical relationships between ideas, demonstrating to your reader how ideas fit together. "And," on the other hand, can join disparate ideas. "And" gives your reader a grocery list rather than further understanding.
Commas
A pause for the eye and ear, the comma separates elements
in a series; sets off modifying or introductory clauses and phrases; separates
two independent clauses that are joined by a conjunction; and sets
off quoted text. The biggest problem that most writers have with commas
is their overuse or random placement.
Beware the comma splice,
the peeve of the English teacher!
Colons
Colons
are used before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause
that can stand alone. The colon could be considered a gate, inviting one
to go on. The colon allows you to manipulate the sentence's emphasis,
but overuse of the colon will lessen its power.
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Example: There's only one way to get to Carnegie Hall: practice, practice, practice! Example: The students included three pieces of writing in their portfolios: a narrative, an argument, and a documented paper. |
Dash
Dashes
(-) suggest a change of pace. They alert readers to something unexpected
or to an interruption.
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Example: Armed with one weapon-his wit-he faced the crowd. Example: The accused gasped, "but I never--" and fainted. |
Semicolons
Semicolons help to separate closely related independent
clauses and sort long lists. The semicolon
allows the writer to imply a relationship between balanced ideas without
actually stating that relationship.
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Example:
My grandmother seldom goes to bed this early; she's afraid she'll
miss |
Don't
use a comma when you should use the semicolon! It's the most common mistake
undergraduates make. It will irritate your English instructor to no end!
It will also irritate your future employers.
Prepositions
Prepositions
are words used before nouns and pronouns to form phrases
that convey relationships such as of time and space (in the poem,
throughout the day, behind her, without a doubt, for you). Prepositional
phrases are often idiomatic: on occasion, in love.
- Strings of prepositions can pile information onto previous nouns instead of moving forward with your sentence.
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Faulty: The dinner party scene depicts the artistry of the domestic labor of Mrs. Ramsey in putting the centerpiece on the table in the midst of company. Revised: Domestic artistry is depicted when Mrs. Ramsey displays the centerpiece for her dinner party. |
Holly
Blackford - Contributor
Darling, Capital Community College
Faigley & Lester, The Brief Penguin Handbook
Diane Matlock - Contributor
Raimes, Keys for Writers
Williams, Style: Toward Clarity & Grace
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